1.1. Fig. 1 shows the 3-dimensional structure of an IgG antibody.

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Fig. 1

(i) Identify the areas of the antibody marked X and Y.

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(ii) Name the bonds that hold the separate polypeptides of the antibody structure together.

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1.2. Explain how antibodies such as that shown in Fig. 1 are adapted to their function.

1.3. Fig. 2 shows one way in which antibodies interact with pathogens.

Fig. 2

(i) Name the process taking place in Fig. 2.

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(ii) Outline one other way in which antibodies interact with pathogens.

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1.4. It is possible to engineer antibodies in the laboratory to carry out particular functions.

Suggest how an antibody could be engineered to carry out a specific function.